Author: Jackson J. Spielvogel
ISBN: 978-0-495--91329-0
Chapter: Ten
U-$22-B-0.006065-BE-227
Notes
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1. The domination of society by the nobility reached its apex in the High Middle Ages.
2. In theory, Kings were regarded as the heads of their kingdoms and were expected to lead their vassals and subjects into battle.
3. The King's power was strictly limited.
4. If King's abused the rights and privileges of his vassals, the vassals could and did rebel.
5. Weak Kings were overthrown.
6. Kings were anointed by holy oil in ceremonies reminiscent of Old Testament precedents.
7. Kings positions seemed sanctioned by divine favor.
8. War and marriage alliances enabled them to increase their power, and their conquests enabled them to reward their followers with grants of land and bind power nobles to them.
9. Anglo-Saxon England had fallen subject to Scandinavian control after a successful invasion by the Danes in 1016.
10. King Canute (1016-1035) continued English institutions and laws and even supported the Catholic Church.
11. In 1042, the Anglo-Saxon line of Kings was restored in the person of Edward the Confessor (1042-1066).
12. After Edward the Confessor dies, the kingship was taken by Harold Godwinson.
13. Edward the Confessor belonged to one of England's greatest noble families.
14. William of Normandy was a cousin of Edward the Confessor.
15. William of Normandy laid claim to the throne of England.
16. Harold Godwinson, Anglo-Saxon forces, and William, Norman forces, battle on October 14, 1066, at Hastings. This is a famous battle in English history.
17. Harold Godwinson dies in battle and his forces fled.
18. William of Normandy then began his advance to London, where he was crowned King of England at Christmas.
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19. After William's (1066-1087) conquest, he treated all of England as a royal possession.
20. Domesday Book
a. William commissioned in 1086
b. William sent out royal officials to ascertain who owned or held land in tenancy.
c. Norman Royal family took possession of about 1/5 of the land in England.
d. Norman family made it into a royal demesne (domain).
e. The remaining English land was held by nobles.
f. If land was not held by nobles, then it was held by churches.
g. Church land was held as a fiefs from the King.
h. Nobles or churches who owned land were known as vassals.
21. Vassals were responsible for supplying a quota of knights for the royal army.
22. The great landed nobles were allowed to divide their lands among their subvassals as they wished.
23. Oath of Salisbury Plain= William required all subvassals to swear loyalty to him as their king and liege lord.
24. Oath of Salisbury Plain in 1086
25. The Oath of Salisbury Plain made all subvassals owed their primary loyalty to the king rather than to their immediate lords.
26. In Anglo-Saxon England, the King had only limited lands while great families controlled large stretches of territory and acted rather independently of the king.
27. In contrast, the Normans established a hierarchy of nobles holding land as fiefs from the king.
28. The Norman ruling class spoke French, Anglo-Saxon and French gradually merged into a new English language as the Norman-French intermarried with the Anglo-Saxon nobility.
29. William maintained the Anglo-Saxon administrative system in which counties (shires) were divided into hundreds (group of villages).
30. Shire= counties
a. Sheriff was the chief royal officer.
b. Lead local military forces.
c. Collected royal tolls
d. Presided over the county court
31. William retained the office but replaced the Anglo-Saxon sheriffs with Normans.
32. William developed the system of taxation and royal courts.
33. William was the new king of England, but he was still the duke of Normandy.
34. William was both king (of England) and at the same time a vassal to a king (of France).
35. William was a vassal who was now far more powerful than his lord.
36. Henry I, the last son of William the Conqueror dies (1100-1135).
37. The Plantagenets= Henry II (1154-1189)
38. Henry continued the development of the exchequer= permanent royal treasury
39. Royal Officials= Barons of the Exchequer
40. Barons of the Exchequer
a. received taxes collected by the sheriffs while seated around a table covered by a checkered cloth that served as a counting device.
41. Exchequer is derived from the French word for chessboard.
42. The barons gave receipts to the sheriffs, while clerks recorded the accounts on sheets of parchment that were then rolled up.
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43. Henry I expanded the number of criminal cases tried in the king's court and also devised ways of taking property cases from local courts to the royal courts.
44. The royal courts were now found throughout England, a body of common law (law that was common to the whole Kingdom) began to replace the local law codes, which varied from place to place.
45. Henry I claimed the right to punish clergymen in the royal courts.
46. Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, is the highest-ranking English cleric. He claimed that only church courts could try clerics.
47. Four knights murdered the archbishop in the cathedral.
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48. Many English nobles came to resent the ongoing growth of the King's power and rose in rebellion during the reign of Henry's son, King John (1199-1216).
49. By 1205, King John had lost the duchy of Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine to the French King, Philip Augustus.
50. King John tried to reconquer the duchy and ended in a devastating defeat.
51. English barons rose in rebellion.
52. At Runnymede in 1215, John was forced to assent to Magna Carta, the "great charter" of feudal liberties.
53. Magna Carta was a feudal document.
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54. The Magna Carta reinforced the concept that the monarch should be limited rather than absolute.
55. Edward I (1272-1307) began the process of uniting all of the British Isles into a single Kingdom.
56. Edward was successful in reestablishing monarchical rights after a period of baronial control.
57. Originally, the word parliament was applied to meetings of the King's Great Council in which the greater barons and chief prelates of the church met with the King's judges and principal advisers to deal with judicial affairs.
58. The First Parliament
a. Edward I needed money in 1295. He invited two knights from every county and two residents (known as burgesses) from each city and town to meet with the Great Council to consent to new taxes.
59. The English Parliament came to be composed of two knights form every county and two burgesses from every town or city, as well as the barons and ecclesiastical lords.
60. The barons and church lords formed the House of Lords.
61. The knights and burgesses formed the House of Commons.
62. The Parliaments of Edward I granted taxes, discussed politics, passed laws, and handled judicial business.
63. The law of the realm was beginning to be determined not by the king alone but by the king in consultation with representatives of various groups that constituted the community.
64. By the beginning of the 14th century, England had begun to develop a unique system of national monarchy.
65. The Capetian dynasty of French kings had emerged at the end of the 10th century.
66. The Capetians had little real power, but had the title of king.
67. The Capetians controlled as the royal domain (the lands of the king) only the lands around Paris known as the Ile-de-France.
68. As kings of France, the Capetians were formally the overlords of the great lords of France.
69. The great overlords of France were the Dukes of: Normandy, Brittany, Burgundy, and Aquitaine.
70. The dukes were more powerful than the Capetian Kings.
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71. King Philip II Augustus (1180-1223) was the King of England and ruler of the French territories of Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Aquitaine.
72. In order for King Philip II to administer justice and collect royal revenues in his new territories, he appointed new royal officials, thus inaugurating a French royal bureaucracy.
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73. Louis IX (1226-1270) was a deeply religious man.
74. Louis IX was canonized as a Saint.
75. Philip IV the Fair (1285-1314) was effective in strengthening the French monarchy.
76. 3 Major Branches of Royal Administration
a. A council for advice
b. A chamber of Accounts for Finances
c. the Parlement (Royal Court)
77. The French Parlement was not the same as the English Parliament.
78. The First French Parlement in 1302
a. Representatives of the church
b. Nobility
c. Town Representative
79. Estates-General was the another word for first French Parlement
a. Bolster the King's power
b. Reps of major French social classes can change the laws or grant new taxes
c. By the end of the 13th century, France was the largest, wealthiest, and best-governed monarchical state in Europe
80. The Reconquista, as the Spaniards called it, became over a period of time a sacred mission to many of the Christians rulers and inhabitants of the peninsula.
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81. Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, known as El Cid, was the most famous military adventurer of the time.
82. Vivar fought under either Christian or Muslim rulers.
83. El Cid carved out his own kingdom of Valencia in 1094, but failed to create a dynasty when it was reconquered by the Muslims after his death.
84. By the end of the 12th century, the Christian reconquest of Spain had slowed considerably.
85. The northern half had been consolidated into the Christian Kingdoms of Castile, Navarre, Aragon, and Portugal.
86. Portugal emerged as a separate kingdom in 1179.
87. Alfonso VIII of Castile (1155-1214) defeated the Muslim forces.
88. As the Christian armies moved down the peninsula, the rulers followed a policy known as repartimiento.
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89. Repartimiento
a. distribution of houses, land, and property
b. best lands went to nobles, important churchmen, high-ranking soldiers, and royal officials
90. Muslims who stayed were known as mudejares.
91. Fueros
a. punishments for crimes committed within community boundaries and the means for resolving civil disputes
92. Kings of different regions of Spain freely borrowed from the fueros of other regions in an effort to develop attractive customs for their towns so that immigrants would be lured into establishing residency there.
93. In Castile, King Alfonso X (1252-1284), who called himself the "King of Three Religions," encouraged the continued development of a cosmopolitan culture shared by Christians, Jews, and Muslims.
94. Salian Kings= New dynasty for region
95. 1024 Conrad II of Franconia (1024-1039) was elected King .
96. Great Lords sometimes undermined kings
97. German kings controlled the church and they selected bishops and abbots.
98. German kings used bishops and abbots as royal administrators.
99. German nobles tried to dominate northern Italy, central Italy remained under the control of the Papel States.
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100. Roger Guiscard subdued Muslim Sicily in 1091 after a thirty-year struggle.
101. In 1130, Roger II, the son of Roger of Sicily, was crowned King of Sicily.
102. Both Frederick I (1152-1190) and Frederick II (1212-1250) tried to create a foundation for a new kind of empire.
103. Frederick I= Barbarossa (RedBeard) to the Italians, was a powerful lord from the Swabian House of Hohenstaufen when he was elected king.
104. Frederick I called Italy the Holy Roman Empire.
105. An alliance of northern Italian cities, with the support of the papacy, defeated the forces of the Emperor Frederick at Legnano in 1176.
106. Later Frederick returned to Italy and arranged a settlement with the northern Italian cities by which they retained their independence in return for an annual payment to the emperor.
107. Frederick married his son, who became Henry VI (1190-1197), to the heiress of the Norman Kingdom of Southern Italy, Frederick seemed to be creating the foundation for making the Holy Roman Empire a reality and for realizing the Pope's Nightmare.
108. The Pope's Nightmare
a. Being surrounded by Frederick I
109. After Frederick died, Henry VI had control of Germany and Northern and Southern Italy.
110. Frederick II was raised in Sicily.
111. Frederick II was the most brilliant of the Hohenstaufen rulers.
112. Frederick II was King of Sicily in 1198, King of Germany in 1212, and crowned emperor in 1220.
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113. Rudolf of Habsburg became the new king in 1273, but he was a weak King.
114. After Frederick's II death, Italy fell into political confusion.
115. Papacy remained in control of central Italy.
116. Florence was a city-state and control of Tuscany.
117. Milan was a city-state and controlled the Lombard region under the guidance of the Visconti family.
118. Venice was a republic with great commercial wealth and dominated the northeastern part of the peninsula.
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119. The Teutonic Knights had been founded near the end of the 12th century to protect the Christian Holy Land.
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120. The Mongols were a pastoral people in the region of modern-day Mongolia.
121. Temuchin, unified the Mongol tribes and gained the title of Genghis Khan (c1162-1227).
122. Genghis Khan= Universal Ruler
123. The Mongols conquered China and Korea.
124. One of Genghis Khan's grandsons, Khubilai Khan, completed the conquest of China and established a new Chinese dynasty of rulers known as the Yuan.
125. In 1279, Khubalai Khan moved the capital of China northward to Khanbaliq, City of the Khan, which would later be known by the Chinese name Beijing.
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126. Persia fell by 1233, and by 1258, the Mongols had conquered Baghdad and destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate.
127. In the 1230s, the Mongols conquered Russia, advanced into Poland and Hungary, and destroyed a force of Poles and Teutonic Knights in Silesia in 1214.
128. Kievan Rus state had a society that was dominated by a noble class of landowners known as the Boyars.
129. The sack of Kiev by North Russia princes in 1169 brought an end to the first Russian state.
130. The fundamental civilizing and unifying force of early Russia was the Christian church.
131. The Russian church imitated the liturgy and organization of the Byzantine Empire, whose Eastern Orthodox priests had converted the Kievan Rus to Christianity at the end of the 11th century.
132. The Russian church became known for its rigid religious orthodoxy.
133. Although, Christianity provided a common bond between Russian and European civilization, Russia's religious development guaranteed and even closer affinity between Russian and Byzantine civilization.
134. Alexander Nevsky (c1220-1263), prince of Novgorod, defeated a German invading army at Lake Peipus in northwestern Russia in 1242.
135. The Khan, the acknowledged leader of the western part of the Mongol Empire, rewarded Alexander Nevsky with the title of grand-prince, enabling his descendants to become the princes of Moscow and eventually leaders of all Russia.
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136. The popes had come to exercise control over the territories in central Italy known as the Papal States.
137. The Catholic Church was entangled in the evolving lord-vassal relationships.
138. High officials of the church
a. bishops
b. abbots
139. Bishops and Abbots were fiefs from nobles.
140. As vassals, bishops and abbots were obliged to carry out the usual duties, including military service.
141. Lords assumed the right to choose their vassals, even when those vassals included bishops and abbots.
142. Because lords often selected their vassals from other noble families for political reasons, these bishops and abbots were often wordly figures who cared little about their spiritual responsibilities.
143. A growing number of monasteries fell under the control of local lords, as did much of the church.
144. Reform of the Catholic Church began in Burgundy in eastern France in 910 when Duke William of Aquitaine founded the abbey of Cluny.
145. The monastery began with a renewed dedication to the highest spiritual ideals of the Benedictine rule and was fortunate in having a series of abbots in the tenth century who maintained these ideals.
146. The new monastery at Cluny tried to eliminate some of the abuses that had crept into religious communities by stressing the need to work, replacing manual labor with the copying of manuscripts, and demanding more community worship and less private prayer.
147. The Cluniac Reform
a. Enthusiasm in France first
b. New monasteries were founded based on Cluniac ideals
c. Existing monasteries rededicated themselves by adopting the Cluniac program
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148. Gregory VII (1073-1085)
a. Elected pope in 1073
b. He claimed that he-the pope- was God's "Vicar on Earth"
c. Pope's authority extended over all of Christendom
d. Authority included the right to depose emperors if they disobeyed his wishes
149. lay investiture= both interference by nonmembers of the clergy in elections and their participation in the installation of prelates.
150. A king couldn't use the title of emperor until they were crowned by the pope as "emperor."
151. To gain acceptance of his candidate, the pope threatened the king with excommunication.
152. Excommunication is a censure by which a person is deprived of receiving the sacraments of the church.
153. To counter this threat, Henry IV called a synod or assembly of German bishops, all of whom he had appointed, and had them depose the pope.
154. Pope Gregory VII responded by excommunicating the king and freeing his subjects from their allegiance to him.
155. Henry IV traveled to Canossa in Northern Italy. They met a castle belonging to Countess Matilda of Tuscany. On January 1077, the king admitted his transgressions and begged for forgiveness and absolution.
156. Concordat of Worms
a. An agreement between German King and the Pope.
b. Bishop to be elected by church officials
c. After election, the nominee pays homage to the king as his secular lord
d. In return invested him with the symbols of temporal office
e. A representative of the pope then invested the new bishop with the symbols of his spiritual office
157. The curia was staffed by high church officials known as cardinals.
158. Cardinals served as major advisers and administrators to the popes.
159. College of Cardinals= They were collectively called
160. College of Cardinals elected the new pope
161. Catholic Church Hierarchical Structure
a. Pope
b. Cardinal or College of Cardinals
c. Archbishops
d. Bishop
e. Priest
162. Archbishops controlled a large region called an archdiocese.
163. Each archdiocese was divided into smaller units called dioceses.
164. Each diocese was headed by a bishop.
165. Each diocese was divided into parishes, each headed by a priest.
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166. Theoretically, the bishop chose all priests in his diocese, administered his diocese, and was responsible only to the pope.
167. In the 13th century, the Catholic Church reached the height of its political, intellectual, and secular power.
168. Pope Innocent III (1198-1216) actions were those of a man who believed that he, the pope, was the supreme judge of European affairs.
169. Pope Innocent III forced King Philip II Augustus of France to take back his wife and queen.
170. Pope Innocent III intervened in German affairs and installed his candidate as emperor.
171. Pope Innocent III compelled King John of England to accept the papal choice for the position of archbishop of Canterbury.
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172. Interdict= it forbade priests there to dispense the sacraments of the church in the hope that the people, deprived of the comforts of religion, would exert pressure against their ruler. This was imposed on a region or country, but not on a person
173. Pope Innocent's interdict was so effective that it caused King Philip Augustus to restore his wife to her rightful place as queen of France.
174. 1098 Cistercian order was founded by a group of dissatisfied monks.
175. The Cistercians were strict.
176. The Cistercians ate a simple diet and possessed only a single robe apiece.
177. Cistercians eliminated all decorations from their churches and monastic buildings.
178. Cistercians
a. More time for prayer and manual labor
b. Shorten hours to spend at religious services
c. Played major role in developing a new activist spiritual model
179. A Benedictine monk often spent hours in prayer to honor God.
180. Convents were convenient for families unable or unwilling to find husbands for their daughters and for aristocratic women who did not wish to marry.
181.
182. Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179)
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183. Saint Francis and Saint Dominic
a. Mendicant ("begging") orders
b. Founders of new religious orders
c. They went to the ordinary people and service them
184. Saint Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) was born to a wealthy Italian merchant family, but as a young man he abandoned all worldly goods and began to live and preach in poverty after a series of dramatic spiritual experiences.
185. Francis drew up a simple rule for his followers that consisted merely of biblical precepts focusing on the need to preach and the importance of poverty.
186. Order of Friars Minor
a. Franciscans became very popular
b. Franciscans Minor= Franciscans
c. Franciscans created it and Pope Innocent III approved it
d. Franciscans lived among the people
e. Franciscans preached repentance and aiding the poor
187. Poor Clares
a. Franciscans female branch
b. Founded by Saint Clare
188. Heresy= voices of protest and intolerance
189. Dominicans= The Order of Preachers
190. The Order of Preachers
a. created by Dominic de Guzman (1170-1221), Spanish Priest
b. Dominic was an intellectual
c. Dominic was appalled by heretical movements
d. Dominic believed that a new religious order of men who lived lives of poverty but were learned and capable of preaching effectively would best be able to attack heresy.
e. Pope Innocent III approved
f. Dominicans became an order of mendicant friars in 1215
191. Beguines= communities of women dwelling together in poverty
192. Beguines
a. prayed
b. begged for their daily support or worked as laundresses in hospitals
c. they didn't take religious vows
d. were free to leave the community at will
e. originated in the low countries
f. became strong in the Rhineland area of Germany
193. Monasteries often provided both food and clothing for the poor.
194. Due to a shortage of inns, monasteries also provided hospitality for pilgrims and other travelers.
195. Monks and nuns also took care of the sick.
196. Monks and nuns ran hospitals, especially for poor people who could not receive care elsewhere.
197. Medieval hospitals were primarily residences for the elderly, the terminally ill, or the blind.
198. There were about 2,000 leper houses in France in the 13th century.
199. The sacraments of the Catholic Church ensured that the church was an integral part of people's lives, from birth to death.
200. Catholic Sacraments
a. The Eucharist (the Lord's Supper)
b. Baptism
c. Marriage
d. Penance
e. Extreme Unction
f. Holy Orders
g. Confirmations
201. The clergy administered the Sacraments
202. The Sacraments were viewed as outward symbols of an inward grace.
203. Grace was God's freely given gift that enabled humans to be saved
204. Sacraments were considered imperative for a Christian's salvation.
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205. The English introduced Saint Nicholas, the patron saint of children, who remains instantly recognizable today through his identification with Santa Claus.
206. Of all the Saints, the Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus, occupied the foremost position in the High Middle Ages.
207. Mary was viewed as the most important mediator with her son Jesus, the judge of all sinners.
208. The use of relics by the church were usually the bones of saints or objects intimately connected to saints that were considered worthy of veneration by the faithful.
209. Medieval Christians believed that a pilgrimage to a holy shrine was of particular spiritual benefit.
210. The greatest shrine but the most difficult to reach was the Holy City of Jerusalem.
211. On the European continent, two pilgrim centers were popular:
a. Rome contained the relics of Saints Peter and Paul
b. Santiago de Compostela site of tomb of the Apostle James
212. The best known heresy of the 12th and 13th century was Catharism.
213. The Cathars (the word Cathar means "pure") were often called Albigensians after teh city of Albi, one of their strongholds in Southern France.
214. Cathars
a. believed in dualist system
b. good and evil were separate and distinct
c. things of the spirit were good because they were created by the God of light
d. things of the world were evil because they were created by Satan
215. Humans were enmeshed in dualism.
216. Dualism
a. human souls were good
b. human bodies were bad
217. Pope Innocent III appealed to the nobles for a crusade. He got it on the summer of 1209 against the Albigensians.
218. Thousands of heretics were slaughtered, including entire populations of some towns.
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219. Holy Office= Papal Inquisition
a. formal court
b. job to find and try heretics
c. court was a regular method for discovering and dealing with heretics
220. Holy Office inquisitorial procedures
a. anyone can be accused
b. if the accused heretic confessed accused was forced to perform public penance and was subjected to punishment
c. accused property was confiscated and divided between the secular authorities and the church
221. In 1252, those not confessing voluntarily were subjected to torture.
222. Relapsed heretics who confessed, did penance, and then reverted to heresy were turned over to the secular authorities for execution.
223. Christians of the 13th century
a. believed in only one path to salvation
b. heresy was a crime against God and humanity
c. force was justified to save souls from damnation
224. The fanaticism and fear unleashed in the struggle against heretics were also used against others, especially the best known outgroup of western society, the Jews.
225. The Jews constituted the only religious minority in Christian Europe that was allowed to practice a non-Christian-religion.
226. In the Early Middle Ages, Jews were actively involved in trade and crafts.
227. After being excluded from practicing most trades by the guild system, some Jews turned to money-lending as a way to survive.
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228. In southern Europe, Jews served an important function as cultural and intellectual intermediaries between the Muslim and Christian worlds.
229. The Fourth Lateran Council in 1215
a. declared that Jews must wear distinguishing clothing
b. encouraged the development of Jewish ghettos
230. Edward I expelled all Jews from England in 1290.
231. The French King followed suit in 1306 but readmitted the Jews in 1315. The Jews left France on their own accord in 1322.
232. As the policy of expulsion spread into central Europe, most northern European Jews were forced to move into Poland as a last refuge.
233. Between 1250 and 1300, what had been tolerated in most of Europe became a criminal act deserving of death. This is how homosexuality was treated.
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234. Fatimids had their origins in North Africa. They managed to conquer Egypt and establish a new city called Cairo to serve as their capital.
235. The Fatimids were known as Shi'ite.
236. The Sunni lived in Baghdad.
237. Shi'ite= shi'ite caliphate= Fatimids
238. Sunni= sunni caliphate= Abbasid caliphate
239. Fatimid dynasty became the center of Islam.
240. Fatimids used Seljuk Turks as mercenaries.
241. In 1055, a Turkish leader captured Baghdad and assumed command of the Abbasid Empire with the title of sultan ("holder of power").
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242. The growing division between the Catholic Church of the West and the Eastern Orthodox Church of the Byzantine Empire also weakened the Byzantine state.
243. Eastern Orthodox Church did not accept that the pope is the sole head of the church.
244. 1054, Pope Leo IX and Patriarch Michael Cerularius, head of the Byzantine Church, formally excommunicated each other.
245. The Turks defeat the Byzantine forces at Manzikert in 1071 and take over Anatolia.
246. The Comneni
a. led by Alexius I Comnenus (1081-1118)
b. had victories at Greek Adriatic coast by defeating the Normans
c. defeated the Pechenegs in the Balkans
d. stopped Turks at Anatolia
247. 1095, the Council of Clermont in southern France
a. Pope Urban II (1088-1099) announced the crusade to recover the Holy Land
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248. The first crusade reached Antioch in 1098.
249. The first crusade reached Jerusalem in June 1099. It took them 5 weeks to take over the city.
250. The crusaders created 4 organized crusader states
a. Edessa
b. Antioch
c. Tripoli
d. Jerusalem
251. These crusader states depended on Genoa, Pisa, and Venice for supplies making these cities rich.
252. 1120's the Muslims were striking back.
253. 1144, Edessa falls to Muslims.
254. Second Crusade was ordered by Saint Bernard of Clairvaux and was a total failure.
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255. The Third Crusade was a reaction to the fall of the Holy City of Jerusalem in 1187 to the Muslim forces under Saladin.
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256. King Richard I the Lionhearted of England (1189-1199) negotiated a settlement whereby Saladin agreed to allow Christian pilgrims free access to Jerusalem.
257. After the death of Saladin in 1193, Pope Innocent III initiated the Fourth Crusade.
258. 1204 Venetian leaders of the crusaders sacked Constantinople and created a new Latin Empire.
259. 1261 a Byzantine army recapture Constantinople.
260. In 1228, German Emperor Frederick II marched into Jerusalem and accepted the crown as king of Jerusalem after he had made an agreement with the Sultan of Egypt.
Notes
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1. The domination of society by the nobility reached its apex in the High Middle Ages.
2. In theory, Kings were regarded as the heads of their kingdoms and were expected to lead their vassals and subjects into battle.
3. The King's power was strictly limited.
4. If King's abused the rights and privileges of his vassals, the vassals could and did rebel.
5. Weak Kings were overthrown.
6. Kings were anointed by holy oil in ceremonies reminiscent of Old Testament precedents.
7. Kings positions seemed sanctioned by divine favor.
8. War and marriage alliances enabled them to increase their power, and their conquests enabled them to reward their followers with grants of land and bind power nobles to them.
9. Anglo-Saxon England had fallen subject to Scandinavian control after a successful invasion by the Danes in 1016.
10. King Canute (1016-1035) continued English institutions and laws and even supported the Catholic Church.
11. In 1042, the Anglo-Saxon line of Kings was restored in the person of Edward the Confessor (1042-1066).
12. After Edward the Confessor dies, the kingship was taken by Harold Godwinson.
13. Edward the Confessor belonged to one of England's greatest noble families.
14. William of Normandy was a cousin of Edward the Confessor.
15. William of Normandy laid claim to the throne of England.
16. Harold Godwinson, Anglo-Saxon forces, and William, Norman forces, battle on October 14, 1066, at Hastings. This is a famous battle in English history.
17. Harold Godwinson dies in battle and his forces fled.
18. William of Normandy then began his advance to London, where he was crowned King of England at Christmas.
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19. After William's (1066-1087) conquest, he treated all of England as a royal possession.
20. Domesday Book
a. William commissioned in 1086
b. William sent out royal officials to ascertain who owned or held land in tenancy.
c. Norman Royal family took possession of about 1/5 of the land in England.
d. Norman family made it into a royal demesne (domain).
e. The remaining English land was held by nobles.
f. If land was not held by nobles, then it was held by churches.
g. Church land was held as a fiefs from the King.
h. Nobles or churches who owned land were known as vassals.
21. Vassals were responsible for supplying a quota of knights for the royal army.
22. The great landed nobles were allowed to divide their lands among their subvassals as they wished.
23. Oath of Salisbury Plain= William required all subvassals to swear loyalty to him as their king and liege lord.
24. Oath of Salisbury Plain in 1086
25. The Oath of Salisbury Plain made all subvassals owed their primary loyalty to the king rather than to their immediate lords.
26. In Anglo-Saxon England, the King had only limited lands while great families controlled large stretches of territory and acted rather independently of the king.
27. In contrast, the Normans established a hierarchy of nobles holding land as fiefs from the king.
28. The Norman ruling class spoke French, Anglo-Saxon and French gradually merged into a new English language as the Norman-French intermarried with the Anglo-Saxon nobility.
29. William maintained the Anglo-Saxon administrative system in which counties (shires) were divided into hundreds (group of villages).
30. Shire= counties
a. Sheriff was the chief royal officer.
b. Lead local military forces.
c. Collected royal tolls
d. Presided over the county court
31. William retained the office but replaced the Anglo-Saxon sheriffs with Normans.
32. William developed the system of taxation and royal courts.
33. William was the new king of England, but he was still the duke of Normandy.
34. William was both king (of England) and at the same time a vassal to a king (of France).
35. William was a vassal who was now far more powerful than his lord.
36. Henry I, the last son of William the Conqueror dies (1100-1135).
37. The Plantagenets= Henry II (1154-1189)
38. Henry continued the development of the exchequer= permanent royal treasury
39. Royal Officials= Barons of the Exchequer
40. Barons of the Exchequer
a. received taxes collected by the sheriffs while seated around a table covered by a checkered cloth that served as a counting device.
41. Exchequer is derived from the French word for chessboard.
42. The barons gave receipts to the sheriffs, while clerks recorded the accounts on sheets of parchment that were then rolled up.
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43. Henry I expanded the number of criminal cases tried in the king's court and also devised ways of taking property cases from local courts to the royal courts.
44. The royal courts were now found throughout England, a body of common law (law that was common to the whole Kingdom) began to replace the local law codes, which varied from place to place.
45. Henry I claimed the right to punish clergymen in the royal courts.
46. Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, is the highest-ranking English cleric. He claimed that only church courts could try clerics.
47. Four knights murdered the archbishop in the cathedral.
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48. Many English nobles came to resent the ongoing growth of the King's power and rose in rebellion during the reign of Henry's son, King John (1199-1216).
49. By 1205, King John had lost the duchy of Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine to the French King, Philip Augustus.
50. King John tried to reconquer the duchy and ended in a devastating defeat.
51. English barons rose in rebellion.
52. At Runnymede in 1215, John was forced to assent to Magna Carta, the "great charter" of feudal liberties.
53. Magna Carta was a feudal document.
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54. The Magna Carta reinforced the concept that the monarch should be limited rather than absolute.
55. Edward I (1272-1307) began the process of uniting all of the British Isles into a single Kingdom.
56. Edward was successful in reestablishing monarchical rights after a period of baronial control.
57. Originally, the word parliament was applied to meetings of the King's Great Council in which the greater barons and chief prelates of the church met with the King's judges and principal advisers to deal with judicial affairs.
58. The First Parliament
a. Edward I needed money in 1295. He invited two knights from every county and two residents (known as burgesses) from each city and town to meet with the Great Council to consent to new taxes.
59. The English Parliament came to be composed of two knights form every county and two burgesses from every town or city, as well as the barons and ecclesiastical lords.
60. The barons and church lords formed the House of Lords.
61. The knights and burgesses formed the House of Commons.
62. The Parliaments of Edward I granted taxes, discussed politics, passed laws, and handled judicial business.
63. The law of the realm was beginning to be determined not by the king alone but by the king in consultation with representatives of various groups that constituted the community.
64. By the beginning of the 14th century, England had begun to develop a unique system of national monarchy.
65. The Capetian dynasty of French kings had emerged at the end of the 10th century.
66. The Capetians had little real power, but had the title of king.
67. The Capetians controlled as the royal domain (the lands of the king) only the lands around Paris known as the Ile-de-France.
68. As kings of France, the Capetians were formally the overlords of the great lords of France.
69. The great overlords of France were the Dukes of: Normandy, Brittany, Burgundy, and Aquitaine.
70. The dukes were more powerful than the Capetian Kings.
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71. King Philip II Augustus (1180-1223) was the King of England and ruler of the French territories of Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Aquitaine.
72. In order for King Philip II to administer justice and collect royal revenues in his new territories, he appointed new royal officials, thus inaugurating a French royal bureaucracy.
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73. Louis IX (1226-1270) was a deeply religious man.
74. Louis IX was canonized as a Saint.
75. Philip IV the Fair (1285-1314) was effective in strengthening the French monarchy.
76. 3 Major Branches of Royal Administration
a. A council for advice
b. A chamber of Accounts for Finances
c. the Parlement (Royal Court)
77. The French Parlement was not the same as the English Parliament.
78. The First French Parlement in 1302
a. Representatives of the church
b. Nobility
c. Town Representative
79. Estates-General was the another word for first French Parlement
a. Bolster the King's power
b. Reps of major French social classes can change the laws or grant new taxes
c. By the end of the 13th century, France was the largest, wealthiest, and best-governed monarchical state in Europe
80. The Reconquista, as the Spaniards called it, became over a period of time a sacred mission to many of the Christians rulers and inhabitants of the peninsula.
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81. Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, known as El Cid, was the most famous military adventurer of the time.
82. Vivar fought under either Christian or Muslim rulers.
83. El Cid carved out his own kingdom of Valencia in 1094, but failed to create a dynasty when it was reconquered by the Muslims after his death.
84. By the end of the 12th century, the Christian reconquest of Spain had slowed considerably.
85. The northern half had been consolidated into the Christian Kingdoms of Castile, Navarre, Aragon, and Portugal.
86. Portugal emerged as a separate kingdom in 1179.
87. Alfonso VIII of Castile (1155-1214) defeated the Muslim forces.
88. As the Christian armies moved down the peninsula, the rulers followed a policy known as repartimiento.
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89. Repartimiento
a. distribution of houses, land, and property
b. best lands went to nobles, important churchmen, high-ranking soldiers, and royal officials
90. Muslims who stayed were known as mudejares.
91. Fueros
a. punishments for crimes committed within community boundaries and the means for resolving civil disputes
92. Kings of different regions of Spain freely borrowed from the fueros of other regions in an effort to develop attractive customs for their towns so that immigrants would be lured into establishing residency there.
93. In Castile, King Alfonso X (1252-1284), who called himself the "King of Three Religions," encouraged the continued development of a cosmopolitan culture shared by Christians, Jews, and Muslims.
94. Salian Kings= New dynasty for region
95. 1024 Conrad II of Franconia (1024-1039) was elected King .
96. Great Lords sometimes undermined kings
97. German kings controlled the church and they selected bishops and abbots.
98. German kings used bishops and abbots as royal administrators.
99. German nobles tried to dominate northern Italy, central Italy remained under the control of the Papel States.
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100. Roger Guiscard subdued Muslim Sicily in 1091 after a thirty-year struggle.
101. In 1130, Roger II, the son of Roger of Sicily, was crowned King of Sicily.
102. Both Frederick I (1152-1190) and Frederick II (1212-1250) tried to create a foundation for a new kind of empire.
103. Frederick I= Barbarossa (RedBeard) to the Italians, was a powerful lord from the Swabian House of Hohenstaufen when he was elected king.
104. Frederick I called Italy the Holy Roman Empire.
105. An alliance of northern Italian cities, with the support of the papacy, defeated the forces of the Emperor Frederick at Legnano in 1176.
106. Later Frederick returned to Italy and arranged a settlement with the northern Italian cities by which they retained their independence in return for an annual payment to the emperor.
107. Frederick married his son, who became Henry VI (1190-1197), to the heiress of the Norman Kingdom of Southern Italy, Frederick seemed to be creating the foundation for making the Holy Roman Empire a reality and for realizing the Pope's Nightmare.
108. The Pope's Nightmare
a. Being surrounded by Frederick I
109. After Frederick died, Henry VI had control of Germany and Northern and Southern Italy.
110. Frederick II was raised in Sicily.
111. Frederick II was the most brilliant of the Hohenstaufen rulers.
112. Frederick II was King of Sicily in 1198, King of Germany in 1212, and crowned emperor in 1220.
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113. Rudolf of Habsburg became the new king in 1273, but he was a weak King.
114. After Frederick's II death, Italy fell into political confusion.
115. Papacy remained in control of central Italy.
116. Florence was a city-state and control of Tuscany.
117. Milan was a city-state and controlled the Lombard region under the guidance of the Visconti family.
118. Venice was a republic with great commercial wealth and dominated the northeastern part of the peninsula.
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119. The Teutonic Knights had been founded near the end of the 12th century to protect the Christian Holy Land.
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120. The Mongols were a pastoral people in the region of modern-day Mongolia.
121. Temuchin, unified the Mongol tribes and gained the title of Genghis Khan (c1162-1227).
122. Genghis Khan= Universal Ruler
123. The Mongols conquered China and Korea.
124. One of Genghis Khan's grandsons, Khubilai Khan, completed the conquest of China and established a new Chinese dynasty of rulers known as the Yuan.
125. In 1279, Khubalai Khan moved the capital of China northward to Khanbaliq, City of the Khan, which would later be known by the Chinese name Beijing.
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126. Persia fell by 1233, and by 1258, the Mongols had conquered Baghdad and destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate.
127. In the 1230s, the Mongols conquered Russia, advanced into Poland and Hungary, and destroyed a force of Poles and Teutonic Knights in Silesia in 1214.
128. Kievan Rus state had a society that was dominated by a noble class of landowners known as the Boyars.
129. The sack of Kiev by North Russia princes in 1169 brought an end to the first Russian state.
130. The fundamental civilizing and unifying force of early Russia was the Christian church.
131. The Russian church imitated the liturgy and organization of the Byzantine Empire, whose Eastern Orthodox priests had converted the Kievan Rus to Christianity at the end of the 11th century.
132. The Russian church became known for its rigid religious orthodoxy.
133. Although, Christianity provided a common bond between Russian and European civilization, Russia's religious development guaranteed and even closer affinity between Russian and Byzantine civilization.
134. Alexander Nevsky (c1220-1263), prince of Novgorod, defeated a German invading army at Lake Peipus in northwestern Russia in 1242.
135. The Khan, the acknowledged leader of the western part of the Mongol Empire, rewarded Alexander Nevsky with the title of grand-prince, enabling his descendants to become the princes of Moscow and eventually leaders of all Russia.
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136. The popes had come to exercise control over the territories in central Italy known as the Papal States.
137. The Catholic Church was entangled in the evolving lord-vassal relationships.
138. High officials of the church
a. bishops
b. abbots
139. Bishops and Abbots were fiefs from nobles.
140. As vassals, bishops and abbots were obliged to carry out the usual duties, including military service.
141. Lords assumed the right to choose their vassals, even when those vassals included bishops and abbots.
142. Because lords often selected their vassals from other noble families for political reasons, these bishops and abbots were often wordly figures who cared little about their spiritual responsibilities.
143. A growing number of monasteries fell under the control of local lords, as did much of the church.
144. Reform of the Catholic Church began in Burgundy in eastern France in 910 when Duke William of Aquitaine founded the abbey of Cluny.
145. The monastery began with a renewed dedication to the highest spiritual ideals of the Benedictine rule and was fortunate in having a series of abbots in the tenth century who maintained these ideals.
146. The new monastery at Cluny tried to eliminate some of the abuses that had crept into religious communities by stressing the need to work, replacing manual labor with the copying of manuscripts, and demanding more community worship and less private prayer.
147. The Cluniac Reform
a. Enthusiasm in France first
b. New monasteries were founded based on Cluniac ideals
c. Existing monasteries rededicated themselves by adopting the Cluniac program
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148. Gregory VII (1073-1085)
a. Elected pope in 1073
b. He claimed that he-the pope- was God's "Vicar on Earth"
c. Pope's authority extended over all of Christendom
d. Authority included the right to depose emperors if they disobeyed his wishes
149. lay investiture= both interference by nonmembers of the clergy in elections and their participation in the installation of prelates.
150. A king couldn't use the title of emperor until they were crowned by the pope as "emperor."
151. To gain acceptance of his candidate, the pope threatened the king with excommunication.
152. Excommunication is a censure by which a person is deprived of receiving the sacraments of the church.
153. To counter this threat, Henry IV called a synod or assembly of German bishops, all of whom he had appointed, and had them depose the pope.
154. Pope Gregory VII responded by excommunicating the king and freeing his subjects from their allegiance to him.
155. Henry IV traveled to Canossa in Northern Italy. They met a castle belonging to Countess Matilda of Tuscany. On January 1077, the king admitted his transgressions and begged for forgiveness and absolution.
156. Concordat of Worms
a. An agreement between German King and the Pope.
b. Bishop to be elected by church officials
c. After election, the nominee pays homage to the king as his secular lord
d. In return invested him with the symbols of temporal office
e. A representative of the pope then invested the new bishop with the symbols of his spiritual office
157. The curia was staffed by high church officials known as cardinals.
158. Cardinals served as major advisers and administrators to the popes.
159. College of Cardinals= They were collectively called
160. College of Cardinals elected the new pope
161. Catholic Church Hierarchical Structure
a. Pope
b. Cardinal or College of Cardinals
c. Archbishops
d. Bishop
e. Priest
162. Archbishops controlled a large region called an archdiocese.
163. Each archdiocese was divided into smaller units called dioceses.
164. Each diocese was headed by a bishop.
165. Each diocese was divided into parishes, each headed by a priest.
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166. Theoretically, the bishop chose all priests in his diocese, administered his diocese, and was responsible only to the pope.
167. In the 13th century, the Catholic Church reached the height of its political, intellectual, and secular power.
168. Pope Innocent III (1198-1216) actions were those of a man who believed that he, the pope, was the supreme judge of European affairs.
169. Pope Innocent III forced King Philip II Augustus of France to take back his wife and queen.
170. Pope Innocent III intervened in German affairs and installed his candidate as emperor.
171. Pope Innocent III compelled King John of England to accept the papal choice for the position of archbishop of Canterbury.
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172. Interdict= it forbade priests there to dispense the sacraments of the church in the hope that the people, deprived of the comforts of religion, would exert pressure against their ruler. This was imposed on a region or country, but not on a person
173. Pope Innocent's interdict was so effective that it caused King Philip Augustus to restore his wife to her rightful place as queen of France.
174. 1098 Cistercian order was founded by a group of dissatisfied monks.
175. The Cistercians were strict.
176. The Cistercians ate a simple diet and possessed only a single robe apiece.
177. Cistercians eliminated all decorations from their churches and monastic buildings.
178. Cistercians
a. More time for prayer and manual labor
b. Shorten hours to spend at religious services
c. Played major role in developing a new activist spiritual model
179. A Benedictine monk often spent hours in prayer to honor God.
180. Convents were convenient for families unable or unwilling to find husbands for their daughters and for aristocratic women who did not wish to marry.
181.
182. Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179)
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183. Saint Francis and Saint Dominic
a. Mendicant ("begging") orders
b. Founders of new religious orders
c. They went to the ordinary people and service them
184. Saint Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) was born to a wealthy Italian merchant family, but as a young man he abandoned all worldly goods and began to live and preach in poverty after a series of dramatic spiritual experiences.
185. Francis drew up a simple rule for his followers that consisted merely of biblical precepts focusing on the need to preach and the importance of poverty.
186. Order of Friars Minor
a. Franciscans became very popular
b. Franciscans Minor= Franciscans
c. Franciscans created it and Pope Innocent III approved it
d. Franciscans lived among the people
e. Franciscans preached repentance and aiding the poor
187. Poor Clares
a. Franciscans female branch
b. Founded by Saint Clare
188. Heresy= voices of protest and intolerance
189. Dominicans= The Order of Preachers
190. The Order of Preachers
a. created by Dominic de Guzman (1170-1221), Spanish Priest
b. Dominic was an intellectual
c. Dominic was appalled by heretical movements
d. Dominic believed that a new religious order of men who lived lives of poverty but were learned and capable of preaching effectively would best be able to attack heresy.
e. Pope Innocent III approved
f. Dominicans became an order of mendicant friars in 1215
191. Beguines= communities of women dwelling together in poverty
192. Beguines
a. prayed
b. begged for their daily support or worked as laundresses in hospitals
c. they didn't take religious vows
d. were free to leave the community at will
e. originated in the low countries
f. became strong in the Rhineland area of Germany
193. Monasteries often provided both food and clothing for the poor.
194. Due to a shortage of inns, monasteries also provided hospitality for pilgrims and other travelers.
195. Monks and nuns also took care of the sick.
196. Monks and nuns ran hospitals, especially for poor people who could not receive care elsewhere.
197. Medieval hospitals were primarily residences for the elderly, the terminally ill, or the blind.
198. There were about 2,000 leper houses in France in the 13th century.
199. The sacraments of the Catholic Church ensured that the church was an integral part of people's lives, from birth to death.
200. Catholic Sacraments
a. The Eucharist (the Lord's Supper)
b. Baptism
c. Marriage
d. Penance
e. Extreme Unction
f. Holy Orders
g. Confirmations
201. The clergy administered the Sacraments
202. The Sacraments were viewed as outward symbols of an inward grace.
203. Grace was God's freely given gift that enabled humans to be saved
204. Sacraments were considered imperative for a Christian's salvation.
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205. The English introduced Saint Nicholas, the patron saint of children, who remains instantly recognizable today through his identification with Santa Claus.
206. Of all the Saints, the Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus, occupied the foremost position in the High Middle Ages.
207. Mary was viewed as the most important mediator with her son Jesus, the judge of all sinners.
208. The use of relics by the church were usually the bones of saints or objects intimately connected to saints that were considered worthy of veneration by the faithful.
209. Medieval Christians believed that a pilgrimage to a holy shrine was of particular spiritual benefit.
210. The greatest shrine but the most difficult to reach was the Holy City of Jerusalem.
211. On the European continent, two pilgrim centers were popular:
a. Rome contained the relics of Saints Peter and Paul
b. Santiago de Compostela site of tomb of the Apostle James
212. The best known heresy of the 12th and 13th century was Catharism.
213. The Cathars (the word Cathar means "pure") were often called Albigensians after teh city of Albi, one of their strongholds in Southern France.
214. Cathars
a. believed in dualist system
b. good and evil were separate and distinct
c. things of the spirit were good because they were created by the God of light
d. things of the world were evil because they were created by Satan
215. Humans were enmeshed in dualism.
216. Dualism
a. human souls were good
b. human bodies were bad
217. Pope Innocent III appealed to the nobles for a crusade. He got it on the summer of 1209 against the Albigensians.
218. Thousands of heretics were slaughtered, including entire populations of some towns.
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219. Holy Office= Papal Inquisition
a. formal court
b. job to find and try heretics
c. court was a regular method for discovering and dealing with heretics
220. Holy Office inquisitorial procedures
a. anyone can be accused
b. if the accused heretic confessed accused was forced to perform public penance and was subjected to punishment
c. accused property was confiscated and divided between the secular authorities and the church
221. In 1252, those not confessing voluntarily were subjected to torture.
222. Relapsed heretics who confessed, did penance, and then reverted to heresy were turned over to the secular authorities for execution.
223. Christians of the 13th century
a. believed in only one path to salvation
b. heresy was a crime against God and humanity
c. force was justified to save souls from damnation
224. The fanaticism and fear unleashed in the struggle against heretics were also used against others, especially the best known outgroup of western society, the Jews.
225. The Jews constituted the only religious minority in Christian Europe that was allowed to practice a non-Christian-religion.
226. In the Early Middle Ages, Jews were actively involved in trade and crafts.
227. After being excluded from practicing most trades by the guild system, some Jews turned to money-lending as a way to survive.
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228. In southern Europe, Jews served an important function as cultural and intellectual intermediaries between the Muslim and Christian worlds.
229. The Fourth Lateran Council in 1215
a. declared that Jews must wear distinguishing clothing
b. encouraged the development of Jewish ghettos
230. Edward I expelled all Jews from England in 1290.
231. The French King followed suit in 1306 but readmitted the Jews in 1315. The Jews left France on their own accord in 1322.
232. As the policy of expulsion spread into central Europe, most northern European Jews were forced to move into Poland as a last refuge.
233. Between 1250 and 1300, what had been tolerated in most of Europe became a criminal act deserving of death. This is how homosexuality was treated.
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234. Fatimids had their origins in North Africa. They managed to conquer Egypt and establish a new city called Cairo to serve as their capital.
235. The Fatimids were known as Shi'ite.
236. The Sunni lived in Baghdad.
237. Shi'ite= shi'ite caliphate= Fatimids
238. Sunni= sunni caliphate= Abbasid caliphate
239. Fatimid dynasty became the center of Islam.
240. Fatimids used Seljuk Turks as mercenaries.
241. In 1055, a Turkish leader captured Baghdad and assumed command of the Abbasid Empire with the title of sultan ("holder of power").
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242. The growing division between the Catholic Church of the West and the Eastern Orthodox Church of the Byzantine Empire also weakened the Byzantine state.
243. Eastern Orthodox Church did not accept that the pope is the sole head of the church.
244. 1054, Pope Leo IX and Patriarch Michael Cerularius, head of the Byzantine Church, formally excommunicated each other.
245. The Turks defeat the Byzantine forces at Manzikert in 1071 and take over Anatolia.
246. The Comneni
a. led by Alexius I Comnenus (1081-1118)
b. had victories at Greek Adriatic coast by defeating the Normans
c. defeated the Pechenegs in the Balkans
d. stopped Turks at Anatolia
247. 1095, the Council of Clermont in southern France
a. Pope Urban II (1088-1099) announced the crusade to recover the Holy Land
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248. The first crusade reached Antioch in 1098.
249. The first crusade reached Jerusalem in June 1099. It took them 5 weeks to take over the city.
250. The crusaders created 4 organized crusader states
a. Edessa
b. Antioch
c. Tripoli
d. Jerusalem
251. These crusader states depended on Genoa, Pisa, and Venice for supplies making these cities rich.
252. 1120's the Muslims were striking back.
253. 1144, Edessa falls to Muslims.
254. Second Crusade was ordered by Saint Bernard of Clairvaux and was a total failure.
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255. The Third Crusade was a reaction to the fall of the Holy City of Jerusalem in 1187 to the Muslim forces under Saladin.
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256. King Richard I the Lionhearted of England (1189-1199) negotiated a settlement whereby Saladin agreed to allow Christian pilgrims free access to Jerusalem.
257. After the death of Saladin in 1193, Pope Innocent III initiated the Fourth Crusade.
258. 1204 Venetian leaders of the crusaders sacked Constantinople and created a new Latin Empire.
259. 1261 a Byzantine army recapture Constantinople.
260. In 1228, German Emperor Frederick II marched into Jerusalem and accepted the crown as king of Jerusalem after he had made an agreement with the Sultan of Egypt.
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